Abridged History of Reactor and Fuel Cycle Technologies Development: A White Paper for the Reactor and Fuel Cycle Technology Subcommittee of the Blue Ribbon Commission

The almost limitless energy of the atom was first harnessed in the United States, as scientists proved the basic physics of nuclear fission in a rudimentary reactor built in the floor of a squash court at the University of Chicago in 1942, and then harnessed that proven energy source in the form of atomic weapons used to end World War II. Scientists who accomplished this feat moved quickly after World War II to harness that power for peaceful uses, focusing primarily on electricity generation for industry, commerce, and household use. President Eisenhower‘s ―Atoms for Peace‖ speech before the United Nations in 1953 heralded the promise of peaceful worldwide application of atomic power as well as means to limit its future use as a weapon.
The early years of peaceful nuclear power development were marked by rapid progress and great innovation. Multiple test and demonstration programs examined most of the plausible pathways for harnessing the atom. Early progress was led by the Naval Nuclear Propulsion program, which built and launched the first nuclear powered submarine, the USS Nautilus, in 1955. Parallel efforts on experimental reactor designs in Idaho, and a land-based application of Nautilus reactor technology at Shippingport, PA, demonstrated the commercial potential of nuclear power. Much was learned in these early years that helped eliminate technical options that proved too challenging, less safe, or uneconomic, and helped focus scientists on options that these demonstration programs proved could be successful. During the early years, the U.S. Government maintained leadership and ultimate control of these developments, but advocates for commercialization of nuclear technology for power generation, particularly in Congress, began a process of transitioning the technology to the private sector.
Commercial nuclear power began to expand rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s, with 22 reactors operating in the U.S. in 1970, and over 50 more under construction. Although reactors fueled by slightly enriched uranium and cooled and moderated by light water were the norm, successful demonstrations were made of liquid-metal cooled reactors fueled by plutonium, as well as high temperature gas reactors cooled by helium and moderated by graphite. (See Appendix A for definitions of these technical terms.)